Effective emerging leader Essay Example for Free

Effective emerging leader EssayIt is very important for an effective emerging leader such as me, to bring to pass stronger in a stimulating, educationally-rich environment. To become great, a student leader must hand many great examples of leadership, teaching and truth. The University of southmost Florida embodies all of these traits for me, and that is why this university appeals to me in every way.I have had the opportunity not only to practice leadership in middle school as the student body prexy, however also be the relay for Life Captain for three years, Yearbook Club Editor, Cross Country Captain and senior Student Government President to finish my high school years. Another advantage I have is the fact that my Aunt Graduated from USF and my mother leave behind be attending USFs shoal of Education in a couple of years. My Aunt has introduced me to the campus, and through her I have heard about the awesome opportunities and great times that await me. leadership has always been the role I was meant to assume and effective degree-holding leaders are crucial in our fast paced, ever evolving world. I believe The University of South Florida will teach me how to become such a leader with its world class faculty and all the opportunities Greek life and volunteering affords.In conclusion, leadership traits I have learned from experience, mentors and teachers over the years will truly benefit my USF life and other USF Bulls as well Whether it is through volunteer opportunities such as Relay for Life, or running for a position on the student Senate, I intend to be a very effective leader at the University of South Florida and leave an everlasting mark of greatness on its campus.

Nepotism in the Workplace

Nepotism in the spend a pennyplaceIntroductionNepotism bath be define as the practice of making duty finales on the basis of relationship. It can excessively be defined as hiring or promoting a sexual relation or friend, even if there argon other qualified candidates for the position. Nepotism in the lastplace is non uncommon, since this is a practice that does non have any universal legality attached to it. However, in recent times, states have passed laws to reduce this practice, since it has many ethical issues involved in it. This paper will seek to define nepotism and it would to the international, regional and local organizations where we have seen suspicions of nepotism. It will be difficult to prove that nepotism does in fact occur in any organization however, based on the link betwixt persons hired and their relations, we have suspicions of the occurrences of nepotism. Nepotism is both seen in the private and public sector. However, based on research, it is more predominant in the public sector.This paper will also show how nepotism can be detrimental the smart set on a whole, beca intention there ar many consequences which result in nepotism. Some consequences that will be examined include, family conflict in the carry place, low staff morale, loss of competent employees, use of the trade to carry forbidden unethical acts, use of position to service their own interest and to the detriment of the company and breach of confidentiality.Nepotism is evident in family owned businesses for the obvious reasons. Families would want to pass the business from genesis to generation and this sum that the profit will stay within the family and will be inherited by family members.Consequences of NepotismAlthough there are consequences of nepotism a pro of this act can bring in stability and tenaciousness in the organization and this will refer to more family owned businesses. Continuity because if it family owned, the business will continue b y passing from generation to generation. Stability because, there will be succession planning which can result in the company being successful. On the flip side of the coin, the consequences out weigh the pros of nepotism. It creates dissatisfaction among employees. When employees are dissatisfied they whitethorn have a feeling that their hard work and dedication are not accepted or recognize by the organization. Nepotism can also result in the company losing proficient employees. This can in exploit touch on the organizations goods and services. Nepotism can also cause antic in the organization. In addition, family members may bring their conflict into the workplace. Employees may not be able to separate home and work life. This is most seen in cases where husbands and wives work together and may find it difficult to work together. This may cause a decrease in the morale among staff members. A total segmentation in communication can result because of this, which will trickle d own to other employees within the company.Inequity of employees is other issue resulting from Nepotism. Because of this factor, employees tend to show their dissatisfaction by low production of work which has attributed to issues in the work place in terms of upholding discipline among employees. Discipline is an issue because employees believe that since there is no umpire in the organization there is no need to follow any policy or procedure. Breach of confidentiality is another consequence of nepotism. This will occur because of the wish of loyalty among employees.Employees may see this as an opportune time for them to practice unethical acts, because they believe because they were hired by a close or relative any practice is appreciated in the organization and they may use this to their advantage to get involved in any kind of unethical behaviour.Where nepotism is prevalentFor obvious reasons nepotism is common in family owned businesses and this can be viewed in the more pos itive terms. Nepotism in family owned businesses can result in continuity in that the business will be passed on from generation to generation. thither may be no ethical issues involved in the hiring family members within a family owned business.Nepotism is prevalent in the government offices. For example in the United States of America, Vice hot seat Cheneys wife and his son-in-law Phillip Cheney were hired by President George Bush and were effrontery heights level position with the government. The positions given were Assistant Secretary of State and Chief Counsel for the Office of Management and budget respectfully (Congress, USA Today, 2007). President Bush was highly criticized for this, because many believe that were more qualified individuals who fit the job.In Cuba Fidel Castro was President of Cuba for over forty years. His brother Raul Castro is now President and has been in the position from since 2008 to present. Raul was given the position of President without any el ections by the people of Cuba. Because of the autocratic spark advanceership style displayed by Fidel and his brother Raul. Many see this as an act of nepotism.In relation to Grenada, we have seen evidence nepotism in the government sectors, in that persons have been employed because of their affiliation and relation to government officials.Research was conducted on some private owned companies in which we saw, a father, wife, daughter and son-in-law were employed within the same organization. Staff members are of the opinion that these individuals were hired because of the family relation.Test intrusionThe regulations testThis test deals with the reaction of your colleagues, if someone make a decision in the presence of an employee, for example to employ your sister-in-law to take up the position of passenger car of sales. There will be no suspicion or concern, if the business is a small family run business. Since the decision would work and be perfectly understandable consider ing family owned businesses are usually passed from generation to generation and the continuity relies on the emotional ties within the family. However within any government organization, if the same decision was made some colleagues may start feeling insulted. They may start thinking if there is a fraud plot in the making, and will sure as shooting voice their opinion and this will create dissatisfaction.Front page testWhat would it look like if we acquire about it in a newspaper, blog, and twitter? What if the headlines read President of Wal-Mart promotes his nephew as C.E.O. This will no doubt create suspicion in the minds of stakeholders. Also if there is some level of shame or ineptitude about the news, one can assume there is some level of nepotism involved.Exception testThis test seeks to answer two straitss.1. What if everyone did it?If every business owner decided to employ persons that are related to them or persons that are friends, that would cause many implication s, for example the skills or qualifications that may be needed at a qualityicular time, a friend or a family may not possess them, which will result in inefficiency. Also that would mean that the main extremity to obtain a job would be on economic terms who you knew, as opposed to being judged on ability or merit.2. What if they did it to us? There is no doubt that if someone was denied a job because he is not a friend of the employers son, but had all the qualifications and skills necessary to carry out the job would be considered to be nothing short of ludicrous. And this would be impossible for anyone to sit and make sense of.Ethical ApproachThe utilitarian start outThis approach deals with proving the superior good with the least possible harm. As it relates to nepotism this approach is greatly violated, since nepotism is specifically linked to benefiting only the family members or to close friends of a particular individual and normally causes dissatisfaction to the majorit y of stakeholders. For example, in a firm where the present Vice President may be contradicting the decision made by the president of that organization, the President may seek to get the Vice President fired so that his friend may become the new Vice President so that the decisions now made by the President can get the go ahead quite easily. (this only benefits the President and the new Vice President)Justice and fairness approachThis approach deals with the question, Are we recognizing the rights of those affect? There is no doubt that each employee should be treated equally there should be no sign of favoritism in the work place. because it would not be ethical for an employer to grant a job to a fishing buddy instead of promoting an employee that is skilled, competent and filled with draw that can confidently fill the vacant position. It is important to note in this case, there will be a chain reaction involved because another employee may be looking forward for the person abov e him to be promoted, so he will then fill the new vacant position. Therefore when someone on the outside is used to fill the position, there will be a chain reaction of disappointment within the organization.Types of NepotismCredentials nepotism This induce of nepotism is sometimes concealed but could be very dangerous to both an individual and an organization. In this situation people are given more character reference for attending a class and passing but cannot apply what they have learnt. In short credential nepotism means giving someone more credit because they are certified (Young, 2008).They were with us through thick and thin nepotism This form of nepotism is for the most part perverse and could create a lot of chaos. New performers in an organization tend to realize that old performers (those who have been with organization from inception) are given preferential treatment by vigilance. This clearly shows that old employees are not held to the same employee accountabilit y standards as the new ones (Young, 2008).Referral nepotism Referral is an employment which is said to be natural. In this case, management asks high performers within the organization to recommend someone for a job opening that needs to be filled. Management hiring someone who turns out to be a poor performer but is tied to a high performer through friendship could lead to chaos in that trying to terminate that poor performer without upsetting the high performer is almost indispensable (Young, 2008).Contribution nepotism This is a situation where persons within an organization receives preferential treatment because of a one-time contribution that made the organization more successful even though their subsequent performance has been poor or unsatisfactory (Young, 2008).Connection nepotism is a connection which comes about by virtue of a shared experience much(prenominal) as attending the same school, attend the same church, from the same community, are members of the same sports club or were in the same fraternity. Connection nepotism is inclined to turn a blind eye to low employee performance and poor job fit (Young, 2008).Favoritism The different types of nepotism mentioned above results in favoritism which is considered to be a killer of the morals o employees (Young, 2008).Ethical Issues InvolvedIllegal employment favouritisms/ inequalityEmployment difference transpires when an employee or applicant is singled out by an employer or their representatives based on factors much(prenominal) as gender, race, age, sexual orientation, religion, disability and several other reasons. For example, an employer who hires only relatives of a particular gender and race oppose to hiring persons who are not relatives and are of a different races and gender (Employeeissues.com, 2010).Wrongful terminationIllegal dischargeConstructive dischargeWrongful termination is the termination of employment because an employee is a certain age, religion, nationality, gender or se xual orientation. For example, an employer dismisses an employee to hire his or her relative because they share the same religious belief and are of the same race. In this instance, the employer has engaged in illegally discharging employees based on the issue of religious beliefs and race (Employeeissues.com, 2010).Constructive discharge is a form of wrongful discharge which occurs when an employee relinquishes his or her job because of nepotism in the workplace which makes working conditions unbearable (Employeeissues.com, 2010).StakeholdersA person, organization that has a direct or indirect interest or involvement in an organization is known as a stakeholder. A stakeholder can affect or be affected by the actions objectives and policies taken by the organization. Different stakeholders are entitled to different considerations since they are not all equal (Gitman, 2009).The key stakeholders who are affected by nepotism are employees, families, management, companies and institutio ns, shareholders, society and customers.Research has shown that nepotism has a detrimental effect on job satisfaction, job turnover and Human Resource Management. Any undesirable decision made by any organization impacts severely on management. Nepotism paralyzes and exposes a company or institution as it undermines their competence, intentions and level of fairness. This could lead to reduce revenue, production, quality of goods and services and company ratings (Arasli, Bavik, Ekiz, 2006) .The stakeholder who is mostly affected by nepotism is the employees. The employees as stakeholders are those who ought to see the direction in which the business is heading. They are the ones who are supposed to point to little changes that have been made that aroused their suspicions. Nepotism is considered to be a practice which is inequitable to workers who are more competent and qualified. Nepotism directly affects an employee level of job satisfaction in such a way that management does no t recognize their commitment and effort made to the organization (Arasli, Bavik, Ekiz, 2006). Nepotism created dissatisfaction, makes workers feel offended, lowers employees moral and also low level of discipline (workers who sense unfairness question whether rules should be followed or not) in an organization. This could lead to workers producing unsatisfactory output, breach in the organizations confidentiality and lack of loyalty among employees. Nepotism could also lead to companys reputation being tarnished since unsatisfied workers could use negative word of mouth to express their dissatisfaction. Company could suffer from reduced revenue, profits and may increase fraud (Bush-Bacelis, 2010).The negative effects of nepotism on the employees could be reflected on their families and subsequently societies. Low morale, poor job satisfaction, job turnover are issues which arise from the work place and could contribute instability within the home. Nepotism could affect a family psy chologically (e.g. disgruntled parents taking it out on children) and financially (quitting job because of nepotism, therefore not being able to provide for family). Nepotism could lead to discrimination among community members and those who have suffered from the repercussions of nepotism tend to dislike those who benefited from it, race, sexual orientation and religious beliefs (Morris, 2005).A shareholders main goal is to maximize their submit on investments. With an issue such as nepotism which could lead several negative effects which have been mentioned above, investors would become very interested in the issues at hand. This issue could determine the amount of return a shareholder receives on his or her investment. Unhappy share holders may seek to replace management and might even consider taking their investments elsewhere. Executives especially Human Resource military unit should definitely avoid such situations and should always take into consideration the feelings of t he shareholders when making decisions (employment decisions) within the company (Morris, 2005).Customers are primarily touch with price, quality, or services of product. Customers recognize and evaluate quality based on the behaviour and tone of voice and in particular the attitude of the employees who serve them. scurvy service and repugnant attitude could lead to a customer changing their buying habits or choosing another place which provides better service.Dissatisfied and furious customers would lead to decrease in profits, increase job turnover and reduction on returns on investments. Therefore, management has to place job satisfaction for employees at the top of their call so that employees could better serve customers which would lead to increase revenue, profits, production and quality (Bush-Bacelis, 2010).Nepotism, although could benefit an organization but it could easily destroy it. Family members could bring in conflicts into the work place which could hamper the effe ctive functioning of the workplace hence changing the companys main purpose from production of quality goods and services and profitability to love and hold up of one another. Nepotism could create disagreements within an organization that could lead to hatred among employees and management. Loss of valued personnel who contributed significantly to the day to day operations and success of the company could be a severe repercussion of nepotism in the work place. This could to a companys inability to maintain its main goal which is profit and quality of goods and services (Ezhel, 2010).ethically Correct ActionsIf Human Resource decides to employ family members either that of Executives or any other positions, they should ensure that they meet the following requirementsAppropriate education for jobWork experience between 3-5 years outside of the companyPay and performance should be determined by the position which is being filled.Implement and enforce national laws relating to nepoti sm. Anti-nepotism laws have only been implemented in some parts of the world like the United States and it needs to be enforced in places where it is not part of their culture. Anti-nepotism laws will be useless in countries like Saudi Arabia since it is part of their culture (Bush-Bacelis, 2010).Implement and enforce anti-nepotism policies which will differ based on the country. certain states in the US have implemented policies that prevent qualified couples from working under the same company while some believe that it is merely discrimination (Bush-Bacelis, 2010).Managers should try to go all out to not to play favorites and must also ensure that managers under them do the same (Young, 2008).Human Resource Personnel could start periodic employment surveys (every quarter) which would seek to help employees voice their concerns about potential or actual nepotism acts within the organization (Young, 2008).ConclusionNepotism is an issue that can be very difficult to control once th ere are relatives or family members who hold key positions in organizations and who have influence of who is hired and who is not hired. In a small population like Grenada, it will be a difficult task to alleviate the problem, since everybody knows everybody in Grenada. The term pull mountain chain will always be an issue in our society.Even in the more developed countries, it could be a difficult issue to combat, since there are also family members and friends employed in high level positions who can be very influential in the recruitment process. However, if policies and procedures are implemented, the practice of nepotism can be decreased, and person will be hired for their qualifications and skills as opposed to being hired because of a friendly or a family relation.It is important that organizations avoid the practices of nepotism. base on our research conducted, nepotism could be very detrimental to an organization and could cause a loss of profit and this could also tarnish the reputation of the organization.

The challenges of Globalization on Small Medium Enterprises

The challenges of globalisation on Small Medium Enterprisesdescription on project background.In the context of Tanzania, the majority of SMEs fall under the informal sector and engaging up to 4 people, in approximately cases family members or employing capital amounting up to Tshs.5.0 trillion / $3,235.83. (Tanzania chamber of commerce industry and Agriculture, 2007). The SMEs cover non-farm economic activities mainly manufacturing, mining, commerce and services. (Tanzania ministry of industry, allot and marketing, 2007).It is easy to establish SMEs all over the world and in Tanzania in particular, since their requirements in terms of capital, technology, management and even utilities ar not as demanding as it is the case for large enterprises. These enterprises atomic number 18 as well established in uncouth settings and thus add value to agro products and at the same time facilitate the dispersal of enterprises.About one third of the GDP originates from SME sector. The sec tor has more than 1.7 billion businesses, engaging about 3 million people, who occupy about 20% of the total labour force. 92% of the annual school leavers (at all levels) in Tanzania are electromotive forcely absorbed by the SME sector. There are about 700,000 new entrants in the SME sector every year. (Saiguran, 2007) Therefore it is reflected already that the SME sector plays a life-or-death role in the economy.Some of the problems faced by SMEs in Tanzania includeSMEs constitute a mellower credit risk beca work they often lack variegation in their sources of income and/or are concentrated relative to large firms, with the possible exception of SMEs oriented to the consumer segment (niche market). They also suffer from significant uncertainty regarding potential tax liabilities. There is no Opaqueness in balance sheets therefore reflecting weak accounting practices and non-transparent information. (Tanzania chamber of commerce industry and Agriculture, 2007). All this results into banks existence un leaveing to lend them money as a result of low credit worthiness which leaves SMEs with limited access to finance.A report from the (ministry on industry and trade in Tanzania, 2002) reports the following problemsIn addition, Business Development Services, namely services related to entrepreneurship, business training, marketing, technology development and information are underdeveloped and not readily available.There is very weak demand for the products produced by SMEs arising from low and dwindling consumer purchasing power as well as competition that arises with connatural imported products.Then again, SME operators lack information as well as appreciation for such services and can hardly manage to digest for to pay for the services. As a result, operators of the sector have rather low skills. Also, there is no umbrella connection for SMEs. Simultaneously, the institutions and associations supporting SMEs are weak, fragmented and uncoordinated partl y due to lack of clear guidance and policy for the development of the sector.Distortionary regulations affecting SMEs (Unfavorable legal and regulatory framework). Tanzania is listed among the top 10 difficult countries to build a warehouse, it takes 12 procedures to register a property, of Tanzanian businesses complain of taxation administration (local and central), and it takes 13 procedures to start a business and 35 days long, at a be of 161 percent income per capita. These all add up to high compliance costs which tend to reduce the visions needed for investment and high operational costs which results into high competitiveness of local domestic products both in internal and external markets.Another problem is as far as the infrastructure is concerned, the roads are very bad thus affecting transport in a way that it makes it difficult and costly to move goods from one point to another deep down the country and adds up to costs. The power is also unreliable and unstable and can disrupt deadlines. Communication is undeveloped and costly. It is difficult to obtain network in farming(prenominal) areas thus affecting the business activities of SMEs and also affecting their cost of production.A heavy cost of compliance resulting from their size is also one of the problems faced by SMEs. This is because they have limited resources (in terms of financial means and manpower). Their spending for market interrogation and market entry take a much higher residue of their total spending.All in all, this project testament be analyzing the importance of SMEs in Tanzania and evaluate their contribution to the country. The problems/ challenges in terms of growth, and their characteristics in relation to Globalization including those mentioned above will be analyse. Various ways in which SMEs can grow to venture into global markets will be sought for their betterment and time to come enhancement in their businesses.C.Brief description of project objectives.(i.e. sc ope of proposal, constructs employ, demarcations and significance)The objective of this project is to investigate the impact of Globalization on SMEs in Tanzania. These impacts can be both positive and negative. It will also evaluate the importance of SMEs in the Tanzanian economy. Secondly, would be to assess the challenges faced by SMEs due to Globalization. Thirdly, a freshen up on existing Government promotion policies and strategies on the Tanzanian SMEs will be prepared. at last but not least, is to determine ways in which the SMEs in Tanzania can grow to become global players.As for the limitations for the questionnaires sent out, the responses may be limited. It would be very difficult to get the respondents to answer to the questionnaires. Another limitation would be in the selection of the hear distribution. The try out frame is very vast thus making it quite difficult to get the correct respondents for the interviews and questionnaires. As for the sample size which is about 100 people, the limitation is that the cost is relatively high especially when conducting long distance interviews over the phone. Lastly but not least, this research is limited to SMEs in Dar-es-Salaam so it may not be possible to generalize it to the whole of Tanzania.The significance of this project is to look at the challenges of SMEs in Tanzania and use it as a prototype to other African countries. There is very limited research on SMEs in Tanzania and this project will contribute as a research paper. This project will also open the eyes of SMEs to growth and development in relation to Globalization.D.Brief description of the models/theories/concepts that will be used in this proposal.(i.e. consumer behaviourism model, CSF and etc.)In this project some important internationalization models will be used, they include, eclectic paradigm of international production by Professor John H. Dunning, Porters Diamond and the theory of Marginal Industry Dilation by Professor Kiy oshi Kojima.There are three reasons for the use of the eclectic paradigm. first of all the paradigm is based on the theories about multinational enterprises. Secondly, the model can be used to explain all types of foreign direct investment (FDI). And lastly, and most importantly, the model embraces all the three ways in which a firm can engage in foreign activities, i.e. foreign direct investment, trade, and contractual resource transfers, e.g. licensing, technical assistance or management and franchising agreements. Moreover, the model makes it possible to predict which route will be preferred. (Bulcke, 2003)According to (Porter, 1998) he designed a rhombus shaped basis of a framework to illustrate the determinants of national advantage. This diamond illustrates the national playing field that countries establish for their industries. Porters Diamond will be used to demonstrate the factors of competitive advantage for SMEs in Tanzania.The theory of marginal industry dilation is a n important foreign direct investment theory to developing countries. Its connotation fits for the true situation of countries middle and small size enterprises. SMEs could use this theory as a direction thus helping them go abroad courageously and develop multinational management. The expansive environment and ardent competition will develop SMEs and prepare them to face the challenge of the economic globalization. (Free papers, 2006)E.Academic research being carried out and other information, techniques being learnt.(i.e. literature what are the names of books you are going to read / data sets you are going to use)The books used will mostly talk about Globalization, the African economy, internationalisation.Journals, articles, and magazines will also be referred to.Some of the references include the followingArticlesBulcke, 2003, worldwideization towards China after its Accession to the WTO, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Departement Oosterse Slavische Studies, viewed on f oremost September 2010, available athttp//webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache8b2CcFrEHjcJwww.cemcweb.com/publication_doc/Opportunities%2520for%2520SMEs%2520in%2520China%2520-%2520thesis%2520of%2520Mattias%2520Grillet.doc+ planetaryization+towards+China+after+its+Accession+to+the+WTO+Are+There+Opportunities+for+European+SMEs%3Fcd=1hl=enct=clnkgl=myMinistry of Industry, trade and marketing, 2007, SME opportunities, viewed on initiative September 2010, available athttp//www.mitm.go.tz/sme.php?cat=15subcat=37Porter, 1998, Competitive advantage of nations, Free Press, New York, available atSaiguran, E, 2007, SME development Tanzania experience, Small Industries development geological formation Tanzania, viewed on 4th September 2010, available athttp//docs.google.com/viewer?a=vq=cache0jN8a7r-DCsJwww.waitro.org/files/downloads/Proceedings/sme-steap2007/sido-emmanuel.pdf+how+many+smes+are+there+in+the+tanzaniahl=engl=mypid=blsrcid=ADGEESghp7HJMdzm_ULpMCu59dGnkdxqIEsl7lohW3QCim1T -r7i3o9A2e2nZREV-rzeZHiflUEgS0o6BGlaBeKaiIT-znZTgR6c7uJfyL2qfmmhJlvZTePS8gLx6PAc6KWjejorEj9Qsig=AHIEtbRoLuZ9Z25T1nC3r7Y7Rk4pTScmtQBooksAfrica Development bank, OECD, 2005, African Economic Outlook, OECD publishing, France, available athttp//books.google.com.my/books?id=vTWgJJJgYswCpg=PT411lpg=PT411dq=SMEs+classification+in+Tanzaniasource=blots=GvWIHnE-1jsig=rJ8zK7Co_wNNSD5lgemJsqiXmNAhl=enei=ek5-TPX3C4LyvQOp262EDgsa=Xoi=book_resultct=resultresnum=9ved=0CDoQ6AEwCAv=onepageq=SMEs%20classification%20in%20Tanzaniaf=falseAthanassiou, N. D. Nigh, 2002, The Impact of the Top Management Teams International Business Experience on the Firms Internationalization Social Networks at Work, Management International Review 422,pp.157-181.Bjrkman, I. M. Forsgren (ed.), The Nature of the International Firm Nordic Contributions to International Business Research, Handelshojskolens Forlag, Copenhagen, s.d..Brgel, O. A. Fier G. Licht G. Murray E. Nerlinger, 1998, The Internationalisation of Britis h and German Start-Up Companies in High-Technology Industries, Discussion Paper No.98-34, Centre for European Economic Research.Creswell, J, W., 2003, Research design Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approaches, 2nd edition, Sage Publications, Inc, United landGhosal, V. L. Prakash, 1999, The Differential Impact of Uncertainty on Investment in Small and Large Businesses, HWWA-Diskussionspapier 81, HWWA-Institut fr Wirtschaftforschung, Hamburg.Johanson, J. Associates, 1994, Internationalization, Relationships and Networks, Studia Oeconomiae Negotiorum 36, Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis, Uppsala.Johanson, J. J.-E. Vahlne, 1994, The Internationalization Process of the Firm A modelling of Knowledge Development and Increasing Foreign Market Commitments, Journal of International Business Studies 8 (Spring/Summer 1977), pp.23-32, as air in Johanson Associates, , pp.50-61.Johanson, J. J.-E. Vahlne, 1994, The Mechanism of Internationalization, International Marketing Review 7 (1990), pp.11-24, as publicized in Johanson Associates, pp.84-95.Johanson, J. F. Wiedersheim-Paul, 1994, Internationalization of the Firm Four Swedish Cases, Journal of Management Studies 12 (October 1975), pp.305-322 as publicized in Johanson Associates, , pp.34-49.Pedhazur, E, J., Schmelkin, L, P., 1991, Measurement, Design, and Analysis an Integrated Approach, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc, Hillsdale, New JerseyPeter, J., , 1990, Internationalization of Small Business in a Microeconomic Perspective, International Small Business series 4, Institute of Small Business, University of Goettingen.F.Brief description of the materials/methodologies needed by the proposal.(i.e. data appeal methods, sampling, sample size and target group etc.)As for the data collection methods, there is a need to gather primary data in order to attain the basic information and get viewpoints, it includes written and online questionnaires, telephone and online interviews and as for secondary dat a it will be used to get critical and more in-depth information on research that has already been done, it will mostly be used in the literature review. Here various books, journals, and articles will be used. Academic research will also be conducted and it will include pedantic articles by various universities, students or professors.Descriptive research to describe the characteristics of SMEs will be carried out. The research will seek answers to various questions, such as what are the problems faced by SMEs and what ways can be used to correct them. It is based on previous agreement of the problem. The research will be cross-section(a) where by a representative subset is studied, at a defined time.The sampling frame will include the top and middle management of SMEs in Tanzania. The sample size will be about 100 people.The sampling methods used for this research would be probability and non-probability sampling because the research is vast. Under probability sampling Stratified random method will be used thus selecting SMEs from certain demography in Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania. The simple random sampling will also be used, hence choosing a choice of 100 SMEs from a choice of 500. The names of some of the SMEs include Tanesco, Alexander Forbes Tanzania Limited, Showerlux Industries, Oryx, Gapco, Copper solution gild, Raycom enterprises Ltd, Tanzania cigarette company Ltd, Zain Tanzania Ltd, Precision Air, Celtel Tanzania etc. Under non-probability sampling, snow-ball (referral by primary respondents) and self-selection (invite participation and collect data from those who respond) are methods that will be used.G.Brief description of the evaluation and analytic thinking proposed for this project.(i.e. project deliverables and hypothesis, correlation test etc)This project will be of great use not only to Tanzanian but also to other African countries since it is aimed at finding ways to enhance the development of SMEs in relation to Globalization. Secondly, th eories by other SMEs who have succeeded to go Global will be analyzed and will be proposed for application to benefit the SMEs in Tanzania.The expected results for this project include Firstly With strengthened SME departments or introduction of the Ministry of small medium enterprises, a lot of time and money will be devoted to the sector thus enhancing the chances of Tanzanian SMEs to become Global players. Secondly With high brand consciousness, the products of SMEs will be able to stand out in the international markets. Thirdly With participation in trade exhibitions such as Expolink, India property expo, East Africa International trade exhibition, SMEs can effectively market their products overseas.H.Illustration of how this project will benefit the future employabilityThis thesis will help increase knowledge and understanding on SMEs. It will also help determine what problems are being faced by SMEs in Tanzania and what measurers can be taken to correct them. Lastly but most i mportantly, this project will help find a match between theory and practice and its application to the real world and will be a basic guide for all SMEs wanting to internationalize towards the economies.

Alpine Plant Biodiversity in the Central Himalayas

Alpine Plant Biodiversity in the Central HimalayasAlpine Plant Biodiversity in the Central Himalayan region Perspective of Global temper ChangeSummaryIncrease in surface temperature at orbiculate scale has already affected a different set of physical and biological systems in whatsoever(prenominal) parts of the world and if it adds at this rapid rate then the ascertain would be worst mavin could switch ever thought off. Garhwal Himalaya, major part of the great Himalayan mountainous system is besides much sensitive and vulnerable to the topical anaesthetic, regional and international changing humour. Due to strong altitudinal gradient, varied climatic see to its and divers(prenominal) set of floral and faunal bring upup, the impact of modality diverge seems to be much richlyer. This reputation broad(prenominal)lights near classic features of the changing pattern of phytologyal man, distribution and impact of climate deepen on the phenological aspect of maj or alpine embed species face up in the Garhwal Himalayan region. It in any case shows cumulative shifts, which operate at topical anaesthetic level but ar globally pervasive. These cumulative modifications al low-spirited in castrate in the land coer/ land use and new(prenominal)wise anthropogenic activities, which be related to the climate vary. Overall biodiversity in the Himalayan region has been depleted as the consequences of complex and multitude pressure of climate change. The depleted biodiversity has in promptly affected the socio-economic development of the local communities on which their sustenance depends and is inherently critical to the consideration and focusing of natural resource.IntroductionPlant diversity and StatusThe varied altitudinal, climatic and topographical conditions in the Himalaya results in different types of microhabitats. Geographic isolation, glaciations, evolution and migration of the species in the prehistorical all together confu se contributed to the exalted level of biodiversity in this mountain system. As per contagious, species and ecosystem level resources, Himalaya is virtuoso of the hotspots of biodiversity in the world, which re affords about one-tenth of the worlds known species of exalted altitude do and animal species. Some parts in the Himalayan region be center for origin of some crops and fruit species and atomic number 18 crucial source of gene for their wild relatives. The floral diversity of this region shows assemblage of many endemic and exotic species of proves from the adjoining regions. A large number of Hesperian Himalayan flora in the Garhwal Kumaon region seems to have been invaded from Tibet, Hesperian China and adjoining north-east Asia (Rau, 1975).In the look scenario biodiversity seems to have been depleted in these regions delinquent to land degradation, habitat fragmentation, increasing population pressure, everyplace exploitation of bio-resources and finally ov erimputable to the changing pattern of the climate. Nearly 10% of f junior-gradeering seed downs are listed downstairs various categories of threatened species. Red Data Book of Indian lays listed about 620 threatened species, of which, 28 are presumed extinct, 124 endangered, 81 vulnerable, 160 rare and 34 insufficiently known (Nayar and Sastry, 1987, 1988), however, Red list of threatened gives indicates 19 species as extinct. Among others, 1236 species are listed as threatened, of which, 41 taxa are peradventure extinct, 152 endangered, 102 vulnerable, 251 rare and 690 of indeterminate status (IUCN, 1997). From the Himalayan region the important arrange species accommodated in threatened categories are mostly the valuable medicinal and aromatic installs, which, support the economic condition and health care system of the local communities.It is well known that, in the context of the position scenario of climate change especially payable to global warming many of the luxuriously-elevated ecosystems are severely sensitive and vulnerable. Their fragility may accelerate the changes occurring in their composition and structure to the slight variations in climatic factors. These regions include glacier, alpine drift/ meadows and timber line ecosystem, which are the important source of the seasonal worker runoff, freshwater, valuable medicinal and aromatic plants, grazing land, source of timber and wild edibles for the mankind.Future scenario of climate change According to the Third Assessment business relationship of Intergovernmental Panel on climate Change (IPCC) 2001, average global temperature close to the earths surface has developmentd by 0.6 C 0.2 C since 19th century mainly receivable to the emission of carbonic acid gas. If human beings do not act to reduce the present level of carbon dioxide there will be additional increment in temperature of 1.4 C to 5.8 C in the next 40 100 year. Current information purchasable on the pattern of future climate change through General Circulation Models (GCMs) suggested that the annual mean warming would increase about 3C in the go of 2050s and about 5C in ten of the 2080s over the land region of Asia. Precipitation would increase annually about 7% and 11% in decades of 2050s and 2080s respectively. There would be a gloam in the summer rush that seems likely to be over the central part of arid and semi-arid Asia. GCM as well showed last uncertainty in future projection of winter and summer hardihood over south Asia, because much of tropical Asian climate is observably associated with the annual monsoon hertz. In Central Himalayan region, through the assessment of people perception it is interpreted that, climate change resulted in the increase in warming, discipline in rainfall during March- May, high rainfall during Aug- Sept instead of normal peak in July- Aug, decline in the snowfall eagerness and winter precipitation in Jan-Feb instead of Dec-Jan (Saxena et al., 2004). This scenario can hardly trigger to think about the changing pattern of climate or its negative and positive impacts at local, regional and global level.Although assessment of future climate change scenario through some of scientific models needs a better infrastructure and high technological inputs, specialized impact of climate change on different ecosystems can be discerned by comprehensive studies on long term monitoring of the different aspects of ecosystem which is wanting(p) in the Indian context especially in the Garhwal Himalayan region cod to poor infrastructure and focal point practices. So, as per as need line in these remote areas the assessment of impact on the natural resources in future climate changes can be done through the site- special(prenominal) sensitivity analytic thinking and it can be related to the traditional knowledges of the peoples living in this particular region of the Himalaya. Sensitivity analysis would help to assess what will be dash a chance if various climatic variables changed, and analysis in like manner evaluates the positive or negative impacts of changing climate on the natural resources. This assessment would help us to solve the local communities realize the importance of conservation and management practice so that the endangered and threatened species could be saved from becoming extinct. Assessment of vulner great power and adaptational capacity of the various ecosystems and to develop indigenous knowledge found coping mechanism are important to determine the impact of climate change. This to a fault cogitate the ecological processes to the social processes and appreciates the relationship between the biodiversity and ecosystem functioning.Climate change Impact on different phytology zoneNatural ecosystems at high elevated railways are much more sensitive to the climatic variations (Ramakrishnan et al., 2003) or global warming then the managed systems. Their sensitivity is heavy(p)l y attributed to their limited productivity during snow-free growing season (Price et al., 2000), low dispersal cap cleverness, geographically localized, inheritedally impoverished, highly specialized and slow reproducing ability of the high altitude plants (McNeely, 1990 WWF, 2003). As a consequence of global warming the present distribution of species in high altitude ecosystems projected to shift higher as results of upward altitudinal movement of the vegetation belts. Although the rate of vegetation change is expected to be slow and colonization success would depend on the ability of adaptation and interaction of the plant species with the climate and other associated species, weeds, exotic and incursive species. Their success similarly depends on their ecological niche width and their role in the ecosystem functioning. Increase in the temperature would result competition between much(prenominal)(prenominal) species and raw arrivals. As the result, species which have wide e cological tolerance have an advantage to adapt and those which are at the edge of range, genetically impoverished, poor dispersal ability and reproducer are low the threshold of extinction.A likely impact of climate change is also observed over the phenological aspect of vegetation in the alpine, crampfish alpine and timberline zone. Changes in the pattern of snowfall and snowmelt in these mountain regions and increase in mean annual surface temperature has pronounce impact on the date and prison term of the blossoming and other phenophases of certain valuable, keystone species of plants. Earlier snowmelt simulate early develop in some early growing plants and perhaps increase in surface temperature may extend the growing period and productivity of certain grass species in the cooler climatic region. There is a gradual decrease in the growing period from timberline to the snow line, Rawat and Pangtey, (1987) reported about 20 weeks growing period near timberline and besides 4 -6 weeks above 5000 m asl. Thus, increase in the average temperature collect to global warming the growing period of the vegetation would be seems to extend at high altitudes. Evidences of climate change through people perception in Garhwal Himalaya reveals that increase in the warming results decline in the yield of apple fruits and shortening the adulthood period of winter crops, whereas, the production of cash crops like potato, peas and kidney beans under warm condition increases. Change in rainfall pattern, snowfall intensity will increase large-scale mortality and damage to the crops, which are close to the collect date on the other hand, Barley and wheat crop production is severely affected due to winter precipitation in months of Jan- Feb (Saxena et al., 2004).Vulnerability of different vegetation belts in the Garhwal Himalaya.Dominant channelize species in the low and mid altitude zone have a wider range of distribution. genus genus Shorea robusta the climax species of lower efflorescence is distributed over moist to dry broad-leafed bio-climates in central India where temperature is much higher small-arm rainfall is quite low. Quercus spp. the climax species at mid elevation is also distributed over a wide range (1100- 1800m) The mid altitude which is henpecked by broad leaves and coniferous forest (Rao, 1994) mainly species of Quercus spp. and Pinus spp. on response to the warming may be replaced by the species like Shorea robusta and Terminalia spp. Warming also increases the chance of greater fire risk in dry or moist deciduous forests, these impacts on the forest can instanter influence the local livelihood establish on fuel and fodder (Ramakrishnan et al. 2003).Rhododendron arboreum is a very enceinte forest species because of its red flowers covering almost the unhurt canopy. At higher elevations this species used to attain peak flowering stage in February / March but now due to warming flowering judgment of conviction in this spec ies seems to shift in the months of January/February. The phenological calendar at lower altitude has thus shifted to the higher altitudes. Exact times of leaf fall, flushing, flowering and fruiting may vary depending upon the elevation indicating sensitivity of phenophases to temperature and moisture stress regime. Flowering and fruiting start earlier about a month with increase in elevation by 600 m (increase in temperature by 2.4 degree C) in Rhododendron arboreum, Prunus cerasoides, Myrica esculenta, Pyrus Pashia and Reinwardtia indica in Central Himalaya. Leafless period in deciduous species like Aesculus indica and Alnus nepalensis is longer at higher altitude as compared to lower altitude. At higher elevation (1500-3300m) in Central Himalaya, semi-evergreen and winter deciduous species occur equally across the elevation/temperature gradient. All across the elevation / temperature gradient, majority of point species show untested flowering. Species showing youthful floweri ng (before 15 June) increased in frequency and those with aestival flowering (between 15 June 15 September) decreased with increase in annual temperature drown based on the elevation gradient. Thus, change in the temperature would affect flowering and fruiting time of different species or also induce change in species composition. phytology of the timberline in different parts of world not only differs in terms of species composition but also exhibit different types of species (Crawford, 1989). In some regions the timberline dissembles exclusively evergreen conifers dapple in some it epitomizes totally deciduous broad-leaved trees (Purohit, 2003). In the central Himalaya the Betula utilis, Abies pindrow and Rhododendron campanulatum, are the native species of timberline (Rawal and Pangtey, 1993), and have a complex, spatial habitat and reservoir of large number of medicinal and aromatic plants and wild edibles. During recent gone, timberline, the most prominent ecological bound ary in the Himalaya where the shade-alpine forests terminates, has been identified as sensitive zone to environmental change and could be effectively modeled / monitored for future climate change processes.The species from tree-line have a narrow range of distribution, as temperature optima for most of these species is higher than the temperature in their natural habitats, warming will be expected to promote their return but they may be threatened if they fail to compete with the changing climatic conditions (Saxena et al., 2004). Due to the over exploitation and changing global climatic condition many of the medicinal and aromatic plants in and around the timberline shrunk in size and distribution from their natural habitats and some of them are listed rare, threatened and endangered. Besides, the herbs some tree species of the timberline across the western Himalaya viz. Taxus baccata, Betula utilis etc. are also facing sever threats of depletion (Purohit, 2003). Most of the spec ies valued by local communities have a poor soil seed bank, there could be large-scale local extinction of these species if seed production on a embellish scale decline (Saxena et al., 2004).Swan (1967) identified two parts of the alpine region i.e. above timberline (Lower alpine zone 300 -4000 masl) and higher alpine zone (4000 masl snowline). Grasses and sedges are dominating members of alpine vegetation at lower altitude but they are characteristically replaced by non- grassy dwarf plant species at higher altitude near snowline. The area immediate above timberline and zone of stunted trees shrubs marks the alpine scrub. The vegetation of the lower alpine zone consists of dwarf shrubs, cushionoid herbs, grasses and sedges, Salix, Rosa, genus genus Lonicera, knit, Cotoneaster and Berberis etc. form the major shrub species at lower alpine zone (Kala et. al., 1998). The herbaceous flora of this zone represent spectacular array of multicolored flowers and include many short perio d growing vibration plant species. The major herbs of this zone are Potentilla, Geranium, Fritillaria, Lilium, Corydalis, Cyananthus, Anemone, Ranunculus, and Impatiens etc.The vegetation of the higher alpine zone is rather sparse, dotted with moraines, boulders and rocky slopes forming suitable habitat for the patches of shrubs e.g. Rhododendron lepidotum, Juniperus spp. Betula utilis and many species of colourful flowering plants, grasses and sedge etc. In the alpine with the onset of summer, the physical condition of the every patches of ground undergoes constant change, this is the root cause for the instability and succession of plants. Another feature of alpine plant distribution is that in the same habitat one could see the increase of several related or unrelated species and only one species dominate in the entire habitat almost to the exclusion of the other species. This difference may be due to the Physico- chemical properties of the soil. Initiation of growing season de pends on the intensity of snowfall in the proceeding season and start of the melting of snow during spring (April May).In alpine region flowering is started during the month of May in some species, but in most of the species flowering occurs during June to late July and it goes up to early August (Nautiyal et al., 2001). Jennifer A. Dunne et al. (2003) reported that in observational condition, increasing 2C average soil temperature during the growing season for every two weeks of earlier snowmelt flowering time is advanced by 11 day in the sub-alpine region. senescence at community level was gradually starts from July to September depending on the growth cycle of the plant species in Central Himalaya (Nautiyal et al., 2001). However in a subject conducted by Zhang and Welker (1996) in Tibetan Tundra alpine the community senescence, which actually starts in September was postponed until October under warmer condition and stimulates the growth of grasses. It indicates that the war mer condition as result of increase CO2 enrichment extend the growing period and increase in the grass productivity and distribution may suppress the growth of forbs, shrubs (Zhang and Welker, 1996), as well the valuable medicinal plants also affected (Ramakrishnan et al., 2003). It is possible that timber productivity in the high altitudes/ longitudes could increase as result of climate change, but it could take on decades to occur and the modly form forests habitats are likely to retain lower level of native biodiversity due to loss of species that are unable to cope and some species will become more abundant and widely distributed (Alward et. al., 1999)Biotic invasion is another important cause of change in the geographical distribution of the plant species, which is derived or accelerated by the global change. Elevated CO2 might enhance the long-term success and dominance of exotic grasses and their shift in species composition mainly driven by global change has potential to accelerate fire cycle and may reduce biodiversity (Smith et al, 2000). The water use efficiency due to increase atmospheric CO2 can allow increase in potential distribution of Acacia nilotica spp. indica in Australia and increase temperature favour its reproductive life cycle (Kriticos et al, 2003). As the glaciers are receding at a dissolute rate the newly formed moraine belt is an excellent area to take in the invasion of plants from the abutting mountains and leas.In recent several land uses and land covers of the high altitude is eroded due to the glacier melting, avalanches and land slides, which favour to extend the distribution of Polygonum polystachyum, a nimble growing herb, is mostly found on freshly eroded slopes, past camping sites, river banks and avalanche tracks (Kala et. al., 1998). The other successful invaders found in these habitats are species of Lonicera and Berberis followed by Rosa and Ephedra. Increase temperature may results higher pathogen option rate and most of the plant species will be severely threatened due to insect, pest and fungal disease.To the changing climate, plants can respond following possible ways firstly no change in their species composition but change in productivity and biogeochemical cycle. Secondly, evolutionary adaptation to the new climatic condition either through plasticity (i.e. shift in phenology) or through genetic response. Followed by emigration to the new areas, as warming observed in the alpine has been associated with upward movement of some plant taxa by 1-4 meter per decade on mountain tops and loss of some taxa that formally were restricted to higher altitude (Grabherr et.al., 1994). Ultimately, they may undergo extinction (Bawa and Dayanandan 1998, Ramakrishnan et al.2003). Most of the plant species changes over time through the process of succession, with pioneer species preparing the way for others, identifying the species present, the physical forms plant takes and the area they occupied are the way for observing change. All the changes involve ever-changing and that are difficult or impossible to predict, natural ecosystems in this regard serve as a kind of natural laboratory, where natural mechanisms of change such as change in climatic condition and change in the feature of physical and biological systems observe practically. Appropriate management strategies need to substantial in such a way that it may have to find a new balance between traditional conservation and maintenance of biodiversity and other ecosystem functioning.Effect on the vegetationUpward movement of the vegetation belt. It result change in the pattern of structure and distribution of many valuable plant species, Reduction in the area of severely sensitive ecosystem like high altitude pastures, snow cover peaks and important glaciers.Changes in the phenology of some plant species, which include change in time of flowering and seed formation.Changes in the habitat, which is favourable for new alien weedy and invasive species.Increases fire risk in the sub- clement and temperate dry deciduous and pine forests.Increases productivity of some grass species from the high altitude regions.Adverse impact on the timber production of forest.Effect on the agro-systemChanges the pattern and time of cropping.Shortening the maturity period of some winter crops, which are traditionally important constituent of mountain agriculture.Increase in the pathogen excerpt rate and crops are more susceptible to pest, insect and fungal diseases.Decline in the yield productivity of some traditional crops whereas increasing temperature may also be favour the productivity crops like wheat.Decline in the yield of some horticultural fruits which needs chilling effect for their fruit development as seen in case of Apple fruit production.Uncertain high precipitation leads to destruction of crop productivity during flowering, seed formation and maturation time.Effect on Physical systemAccelerate inten sity of glacier melting.Reduces area under snow cover and changes the time of snowmelt and snowfall at high-elevated ecosystems.Adverse impact on the seasonal runoff, freshwater availability.Increases the incident of landslides in mountains, drought condition and sever flood condition at lowland regions.Soil properties and process like organic reckon decomposition, leaching and soil-water relation were influenced by increase temperature.Socio-economic conditions of the humankind severely affectedReduction in the area of pasture adversely affect the local bucolic economy, as most of the local livestock of the transhumant and adjoining lowland peoples depends on the high altitude pastures in Garhwal in the summer season.Impact on the timber, medicinal plants and agriculture in the high altitude region in some extent gives negative results to the related industries.Economy through the hydropower generation is affected.Change in the social culture of the peoples living at high altitude regions, i.e. the time of the migration of the transhumant in Garhwal in recent affected due to the adverse climatic conditions. Which also affect their source of economy like agriculture, wool based occupation etc.Changes were also seen in the health conditions of the people living in high altitude, peoples of these regions now more worried about the heat stresses, vector borne diseases, respiratory, eye disorder etc.Status of many endangered wildlife fauna in the Himalayan region affected, and changes in the behavioural and seasonal migration of the animal species can be possible.Table Distribution of some major plant species at different altitudinal belt of Garhwal Himalaya.Altitude (m asl)Plant species500- 1400Shrubs Zizyphus xylopyrus, Woodfordia fructicosa, Trees Rhododendron arboreum, Shorea robusta, Dalbergia sisso, Acacia catechu, Adina cardifolia, Terminalia, Cassia fistula, Mallotus philippensis, Bombax ceiba.Agele,1500-2400Herbs Clematis montana, Anemone rivularis, A. o bturiloba, Ranunculus hirtellus, Thalictrum chelidonii,Barbarea vulgaris, Silene indica, Malvia verticillata, Geraanium nepalense, Fragaria indica, Potentilla fulgens genus genus Epilobium pulustre,Bupleurum falcatum, Aster peduncularis, A. thomsonii, , Gentiana aprica etc.Shrubs Prunus cornuta, Rosa macrophylla, Zizyphus xylopyrus, Woodfordia fructicosaTrees Rhododendron arboreum, Shorea robusta, Dalbergia sisso, Acacia catechu, Pinus roxburghii,P. wallichiana, Quercus leucotricophora, Q. semecarpifolia, Adina cardifolia,2500- 3400Herbs Anemone rivularis, A. obturiloba, Ranunculus hirtellus, Thalictrum chelidonii, T. minus, T. elegans, Aquilegiaa pubiflora, Caltha palustris Clematis montana, Clematis barbellata, Delphinium vestitum, Podophyllum hexandrum, Corydalis cornuta, genus genus Arabis nova, Viola canescens, Silene edgeworthii, S. Indica, Stellaria monosperma, Geranium collinum, G. himalayense, Trigonella emodi, Geum roylei, Potentilla fruticosa, P. fulgens, P. gelida, P. le uconota, P. polyphylla etc.Grasse Sedge genus genus Carex cruciata, Agrostis pilosula,Poa supina, P. alpina, Danthonia.Shrubs Cotoneaster macrophylla, Cotoneaster acuminatus, Lonicera, Salix, Rubus foliolosus, Spiraea bella, Berberis glaucocarpa, Myricaria bracteata, Skimmia laaureola, Astragallus candolleanus, Rosa macrophylla. rib himalense,Trees Betula utilis, Taxus baccata, Rhododendron campanulatum, Alnus nitida, A. nepalensis, Abies pindrow, Cedrus deodara, Pinus wallichiana, Acer ceasium, Junipers3500-4400Herbs Cypridium elegans*, C. himalaicum, Epipogium aphyllum, Dactylorrhiza hatagirea, Listera tenuis, Neottianthe secundiflora, Aconitum balfouri, A. falconeri, A. heterophyllum, A. violaceum, Ranunculus pulchellus, Thalictrum alpinum, Podophyllum hexandrum, Acer caesium*, genus genus Meconopsis aculeate, Corydalis sikkimensis, Megacarpaea polyandra, Astragallus himalayanus, Nardostachys graandiflora*, Picrorhiza kurrooa*, Pleurospermum angelicoides, Saussurea costus*, S. obvallata, Angelica glauca, Ribes griffithii, Lonicera asperifolia, Waldhemia tomentosa, Primula glomerata, Arnebia benthamii, Geranium pratense, Impatiens thomsonii, I. racemosa, Dioscorea deltoidea*, Allium humile, A. stracheyi*, A. wallichi, Clintonia udensis, Thamnocalamus falconeri, Orobanche alba, Sedum ewersii, S. heterodontum,Pimpnella diversifolia, Morina longifoliaGrasse Sedge Elymus thomsonii, Agrostis munroana, Calamagrostis emodensis, Danthonia cachemyriana, Festuca polycolea, Poa pagophila, Stipa roylei, Carex infuscate, C. nivalis, Kobresia royleana, K. duthei etc.Shrubs Cotoneaster duthiana, Cotoneaster acuminatus Hippophae tibetana, Rosa sericea, Sorbus macrophylla, S. ursine, Rhododendron anthopogon,Trees Sorbus aucuparia, Cedrus deodara, Betulla utilis,4500- aboveHerbs Oxygraphis glacialis, Ranunculus pulchellus,Corydalis bowerii, Alyssum canescens,Draba altaica, Silene gonosperma, Potentilla sericea, Sedum bouverii, Saussurea obvallata, S. simpsoniana, Christole a himalayensisLiterature citedRau, M. A. (1975). High altitude flowering plants of west Himalaya. BSI, Howrah, India, pp.214.Singh, D. K. and Hajra, P. K., in Changing Perspectives of Biodiversity Status in the Himalaya (eds Gujral, G. S. and Sharma, V.), British Council Division, British High Commission, Publ. Wildlife Youth Services, New Delhi, 1996, pp. 23-38.Dunne, J.A., Harte, J. and Taylor, K. (2003). Sub alpine Meadow Flowering Phenology Responses To Climate Change Integrating Experimental And Gradient Methods, Ecological Monographs 73 (1), pp. 69-86.IPCC (2001). Climate Change-2001 Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, contribution of Working Group II to the Third Assessment history of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.Kriticos, D.J., Sutherst, R.W., Brown, J.K., Adkings, S.W. and Maywald, G.F. (2003) Climate Change and The Potential Distribution of an Invasive Alien Plant Acacia nilotica ssp.indica in Australia, Journal of Applied Ecology, 40 111-124.Nautiyal, B.P., Prakash, V and Nautiyal, M.C. (2000). Structure And Diversity Pattern Along An Altitudinal Gradient In An Alpine Meadow Of Madhyamaheshwer, Garhwal Himalaya, India. Indian Journal of Environmental Science 4(I). 39- 48.Nautiyal, M.C., Nautiyal, B.P. and Prakash, V. (2001). Phenology And Growth hurl Distribution In An Alpine Pasture At Tungnath, Garhwal Himalaya. Mountain Research and Development, Vol. 21, No. 2, 177-183.Price, M.V. and Waser, N.M. (2000). Responses of sub alpine meadow vegetation to four year of experimental warming. Ecological ApplicatiAlpine Plant Biodiversity in the Central HimalayasAlpine Plant Biodiversity in the Central HimalayasAlpine Plant Biodiversity in the Central Himalayan office Perspective of Global Climate ChangeSummaryIncrease in surface temperature at global scale has already affected a diverse set of physical and biological systems in many parts of the world and if it increases at this rapid rate then the condition would be worst one could have ever thought off. Garhwal Himalaya, major part of the great Himalayan mountainous system is also much sensitive and vulnerable to the local, regional and global changing climate. Due to strong altitudinal gradient, varied climatic conditions and diverse set of floral and faunal composition, the impact of climate change seems to be much higher. This newspaper publisher highlights some important features of the changing pattern of vegetational composition, distribution and impact of climate change on the phenological aspect of major alpine plant species present in the Garhwal Himalayan region. It also shows cumulative changes, which operate at local level but are globally pervasive. These cumulative changes include change in the land cover/ land use and other anthropogenic activities, which are related to the climate change. Overall biodiversity in the Himalayan region has been depleted as the consequences of complex and multitude pressure of climate change. The depleted biodiv ersity has indirectly affected the socio-economic development of the local communities on which their sustenance depends and is inherently critical to the consideration and management of natural resource.IntroductionPlant diversity and StatusThe varied altitudinal, climatic and topographical conditions in the Himalaya results in different types of microhabitats. Geographic isolation, glaciations, evolution and migration of the species in the past all together have contributed to the high level of biodiversity in this mountain system. As per genetic, species and ecosystem level resources, Himalaya is one of the hotspots of biodiversity in the world, which represents about one-tenth of the worlds known species of high altitude plant and animal species. Some parts in the Himalayan region are center for origin of many crops and fruit species and are important source of gene for their wild relatives. The floral diversity of this region shows assemblage of many endemic and exotic species of plants from the adjoining regions. A large number of western Himalayan flora in the Garhwal Kumaon region seems to have been invaded from Tibet, western China and adjoining north-east Asia (Rau, 1975).In the present scenario biodiversity seems to have been depleted in these regions due to land degradation, habitat fragmentation, increasing population pressure, over exploitation of bio-resources and finally due to the changing pattern of the climate. Nearly 10% of flowering plants are listed under various categories of threatened species. Red Data Book of Indian plants listed about 620 threatened species, of which, 28 are presumed extinct, 124 endangered, 81 vulnerable, 160 rare and 34 insufficiently known (Nayar and Sastry, 1987, 1988), however, Red list of threatened plants indicates 19 species as extinct. Among others, 1236 species are listed as threatened, of which, 41 taxa are possibly extinct, 152 endangered, 102 vulnerable, 251 rare and 690 of indeterminate status (IUCN, 1 997). From the Himalayan region the important plant species included in threatened categories are mostly the valuable medicinal and aromatic plants, which, support the economic condition and health care system of the local communities.It is well known that, in the context of the present scenario of climate change especially due to global warming many of the high-elevated ecosystems are severely sensitive and vulnerable. Their fragility may accelerate the changes occurring in their composition and structure to the slight variations in climatic factors. These regions include glacier, alpine pasture/ meadows and timber line ecosystem, which are the important source of the seasonal runoff, freshwater, valuable medicinal and aromatic plants, grazing land, source of timber and wild edibles for the mankind.Future scenario of climate change According to the Third Assessment Report of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2001, average global temperature close to the earths surfac e has increased by 0.6 C 0.2 C since 19th century mainly due to the emission of CO2. If human beings do not act to reduce the present level of CO2 there will be additional increment in temperature of 1.4 C to 5.8 C in the next 40 100 year. Current information ready(prenominal) on the pattern of future climate change through General Circulation Models (GCMs) suggested that the annual mean warming would increase about 3C in the decade of 2050s and about 5C in decade of the 2080s over the land region of Asia. Precipitation would increase annually about 7% and 11% in decades of 2050s and 2080s respectively. There would be a decline in the summer precipitation that seems likely to be over the central part of arid and semi-arid Asia. GCM also showed high uncertainty in future projection of winter and summer precipitation over south Asia, because much of tropical Asian climate is observably associated with the annual monsoon cycle. In Central Himalayan region, through the assessment of people perception it is interpreted that, climate change resulted in the increase in warming, decline in rainfall during March- May, high rainfall during Aug- Sept instead of normal peak in July- Aug, decline in the snowfall intensity and winter precipitation in Jan-Feb instead of Dec-Jan (Saxena et al., 2004). This scenario can hardly trigger to think about the changing pattern of climate or its negative and positive impacts at local, regional and global level.Although assessment of future climate change scenario through some of scientific models needs a better infrastructure and high technological inputs, specific impact of climate change on different ecosystems can be discerned by comprehensive studies on long term monitoring of the different aspects of ecosystem which is lack in the Indian context especially in the Garhwal Himalayan region due to poor infrastructure and management practices. So, as per as need fear in these remote areas the assessment of impact on the natural r esources in future climate changes can be done through the site-specific sensitivity analysis and it can be related to the traditional knowledges of the peoples living in this particular region of the Himalaya. Sensitivity analysis would help to assess what will be proceed if various climatic variables changed, and analysis also evaluates the positive or negative impacts of changing climate on the natural resources. This assessment would help us to make the local communities realize the importance of conservation and management practice so that the endangered and threatened species could be saved from becoming extinct. Assessment of vulnerability and adaptive capacity of the various ecosystems and to develop indigenous knowledge based coping mechanism are important to determine the impact of climate change. This also links the ecological processes to the social processes and appreciates the relationship between the biodiversity and ecosystem functioning.Climate change Impact on di fferent vegetation zoneNatural ecosystems at high elevations are much more sensitive to the climatic variations (Ramakrishnan et al., 2003) or global warming then the managed systems. Their sensitivity is prominently attributed to their limited productivity during snow-free growing season (Price et al., 2000), low dispersal capability, geographically localized, genetically impoverished, highly specialized and slow reproducing ability of the high altitude plants (McNeely, 1990 WWF, 2003). As a consequence of global warming the present distribution of species in high altitude ecosystems projected to shift higher as results of upward altitudinal movement of the vegetation belts. Although the rate of vegetation change is expected to be slow and colonization success would depend on the ability of adaptation and interaction of the plant species with the climate and other associated species, weeds, exotic and invasive species. Their success also depends on their ecological niche width and their role in the ecosystem functioning. Increase in the temperature would result competition between such species and new arrivals. As the result, species which have wide ecological tolerance have an advantage to adapt and those which are at the edge of range, genetically impoverished, poor dispersal ability and reproducer are under the threshold of extinction.A likely impact of climate change is also observed over the phenological aspect of vegetation in the alpine, sub alpine and timberline zone. Changes in the pattern of snowfall and snowmelt in these mountain regions and increase in mean annual surface temperature has pronounce impact on the date and time of the flowering and other phenophases of certain valuable, keystone species of plants. Earlier snowmelt simulate early flowering in some early growing plants and possibly increase in surface temperature may extend the growing period and productivity of certain grass species in the cooler climatic region. There is a gradual de crease in the growing period from timberline to the snow line, Rawat and Pangtey, (1987) reported about 20 weeks growing period near timberline and simply 4-6 weeks above 5000 m asl. Thus, increase in the average temperature due to global warming the growing period of the vegetation would be seems to extend at high altitudes. Evidences of climate change through people perception in Garhwal Himalaya reveals that increase in the warming results decline in the yield of apple fruits and shortening the maturity period of winter crops, whereas, the production of cash crops like potato, peas and kidney beans under warm condition increases. Change in rainfall pattern, snowfall intensity will increase large-scale mortality and damage to the crops, which are close to the maturity on the other hand, Barley and wheat crop production is severely affected due to winter precipitation in months of Jan- Feb (Saxena et al., 2004).Vulnerability of different vegetation belts in the Garhwal Himalaya.Do minant tree species in the low and mid altitude zone have a wider range of distribution. Shorea robusta the climax species of lower elevation is distributed over moist to dry deciduous bio-climates in central India where temperature is much higher while rainfall is quite low. Quercus spp. the climax species at mid elevation is also distributed over a wide range (1100- 1800m) The mid altitude which is reign by broad leaves and coniferous forest (Rao, 1994) mainly species of Quercus spp. and Pinus spp. on response to the warming may be replaced by the species like Shorea robusta and Terminalia spp. Warming also increases the chance of greater fire risk in dry or moist deciduous forests, these impacts on the forest can directly influence the local livelihood based on fuel and fodder (Ramakrishnan et al. 2003).Rhododendron arboreum is a very prominent forest species because of its red flowers covering almost the all told canopy. At higher elevations this species used to attain peak f lowering stage in February / March but now due to warming flowering time in this species seems to shift in the months of January/February. The phenological calendar at lower altitude has thus shifted to the higher altitudes. Exact times of leaf fall, flushing, flowering and fruiting may vary depending upon the elevation indicating sensitivity of phenophases to temperature and moisture stress regime. Flowering and fruiting start earlier about a month with increase in elevation by 600 m (increase in temperature by 2.4 degree C) in Rhododendron arboreum, Prunus cerasoides, Myrica esculenta, Pyrus Pashia and Reinwardtia indica in Central Himalaya. Leafless period in deciduous species like Aesculus indica and Alnus nepalensis is longer at higher altitude as compared to lower altitude. At higher elevation (1500-3300m) in Central Himalaya, evergreen and winter deciduous species occur equally across the elevation/temperature gradient. All across the elevation / temperature gradient, majorit y of tree species show vernal flowering. Species showing vernal flowering (before 15 June) increased in frequency and those with aestival flowering (between 15 June 15 September) decreased with increase in annual temperature drown based on the elevation gradient. Thus, change in the temperature would affect flowering and fruiting time of different species or also induce change in species composition. plant of the timberline in different parts of world not only differs in terms of species composition but also exhibit different types of species (Crawford, 1989). In some regions the timberline represents exclusively evergreen conifers while in some it represents totally deciduous broad-leaved trees (Purohit, 2003). In the central Himalaya the Betula utilis, Abies pindrow and Rhododendron campanulatum, are the native species of timberline (Rawal and Pangtey, 1993), and have a complex, spatial habitat and reservoir of large number of medicinal and aromatic plants and wild edibles. Durin g recent past, timberline, the most prominent ecological boundary in the Himalaya where the sub-alpine forests terminates, has been identified as sensitive zone to environmental change and could be effectively modeled / monitored for future climate change processes.The species from tree-line have a narrow range of distribution, as temperature optima for most of these species is higher than the temperature in their natural habitats, warming will be expected to promote their growth but they may be threatened if they fail to compete with the changing climatic conditions (Saxena et al., 2004). Due to the over exploitation and changing global climatic condition many of the medicinal and aromatic plants in and around the timberline shrunk in size and distribution from their natural habitats and some of them are listed rare, threatened and endangered. Besides, the herbs some tree species of the timberline across the western Himalaya viz. Taxus baccata, Betula utilis etc. are also facing se ver threats of depletion (Purohit, 2003). Most of the species valued by local communities have a poor soil seed bank, there could be large-scale local extinction of these species if seed production on a landscape scale decline (Saxena et al., 2004).Swan (1967) identified two parts of the alpine region i.e. above timberline (Lower alpine zone 300 -4000 masl) and higher alpine zone (4000 masl snowline). Grasses and sedges are dominating members of alpine vegetation at lower altitude but they are characteristically replaced by non- grassy dwarf plant species at higher altitude near snowline. The area immediate above timberline and zone of stunted trees shrubs marks the alpine scrub. The vegetation of the lower alpine zone consists of dwarf shrubs, cushionoid herbs, grasses and sedges, Salix, Rosa, Lonicera, Ribes, Cotoneaster and Berberis etc. form the major shrub species at lower alpine zone (Kala et. al., 1998). The herbaceous flora of this zone represent spectacular array of multi colored flowers and include many short period growing cycle plant species. The major herbs of this zone are Potentilla, Geranium, Fritillaria, Lilium, Corydalis, Cyananthus, Anemone, Ranunculus, and Impatiens etc.The vegetation of the higher alpine zone is rather sparse, dotted with moraines, boulders and rocky slopes forming suitable habitat for the patches of shrubs e.g. Rhododendron lepidotum, Juniperus spp. Betula utilis and many species of colourful flowering plants, grasses and sedge etc. In the alpine with the onset of summer, the physical condition of the every patches of ground undergoes constant change, this is the root cause for the instability and succession of plants. Another feature of alpine plant distribution is that in the same habitat one could see the growth of several related or unrelated species and only one species dominate in the entire habitat almost to the exclusion of the other species. This difference may be due to the Physico- chemical properties of the s oil. Initiation of growing season depends on the intensity of snowfall in the proceeding season and start of the melting of snow during spring (April May).In alpine region flowering is started during the month of May in some species, but in most of the species flowering occurs during June to late July and it goes up to early August (Nautiyal et al., 2001). Jennifer A. Dunne et al. (2003) reported that in experimental condition, increasing 2C average soil temperature during the growing season for every two weeks of earlier snowmelt flowering time is advanced by 11 day in the sub-alpine region. ripening at community level was gradually starts from July to September depending on the growth cycle of the plant species in Central Himalaya (Nautiyal et al., 2001). However in a study conducted by Zhang and Welker (1996) in Tibetan Tundra alpine the community senescence, which actually starts in September was postponed until October under warmer condition and stimulates the growth of grass es. It indicates that the warmer condition as result of increase CO2 enrichment extend the growing period and increase in the grass productivity and distribution may suppress the growth of forbs, shrubs (Zhang and Welker, 1996), likewise the valuable medicinal plants also affected (Ramakrishnan et al., 2003). It is possible that timber productivity in the high altitudes/ longitudes could increase as result of climate change, but it could take decades to occur and the newly form forests habitats are likely to retain lower level of native biodiversity due to loss of species that are unable to cope and some species will become more abundant and widely distributed (Alward et. al., 1999)Biotic invasion is another important cause of change in the geographical distribution of the plant species, which is derived or accelerated by the global change. Elevated CO2 might enhance the long-term success and dominance of exotic grasses and their shift in species composition mainly driven by global change has potential to accelerate fire cycle and may reduce biodiversity (Smith et al, 2000). The water use efficiency due to increase atmospheric CO2 can allow increase in potential distribution of Acacia nilotica spp. indica in Australia and increase temperature favour its reproductive life cycle (Kriticos et al, 2003). As the glaciers are receding at a fast rate the newly formed moraine belt is an excellent area to study the invasion of plants from the adjoining mountains and pastures.In recent several land uses and land covers of the high altitude is eroded due to the glacier melting, avalanches and land slides, which favour to extend the distribution of Polygonum polystachyum, a fast growing herb, is mostly found on freshly eroded slopes, past camping sites, river banks and avalanche tracks (Kala et. al., 1998). The other successful invaders found in these habitats are species of Lonicera and Berberis followed by Rosa and Ephedra. Increase temperature may results higher path ogen survival rate and most of the plant species will be severely threatened due to insect, pest and fungal disease.To the changing climate, plants can respond following possible ways firstly no change in their species composition but change in productivity and biogeochemical cycle. Secondly, evolutionary adaptation to the new climatic condition either through plasticity (i.e. shift in phenology) or through genetic response. Followed by emigration to the new areas, as warming observed in the alpine has been associated with upward movement of some plant taxa by 1-4 meter per decade on mountain tops and loss of some taxa that formally were restricted to higher altitude (Grabherr et.al., 1994). Ultimately, they may undergo extinction (Bawa and Dayanandan 1998, Ramakrishnan et al.2003). Most of the plant species changes over time through the process of succession, with pioneer species preparing the way for others, identifying the species present, the physical forms plant takes and the a rea they occupied are the way for observing change. All the changes involve dynamic and that are difficult or impossible to predict, natural ecosystems in this regard serve as a kind of natural laboratory, where natural mechanisms of change such as change in climatic condition and change in the feature of physical and biological systems observe practically. Appropriate management strategies need to demonstrable in such a way that it may have to find a new balance between traditional conservation and maintenance of biodiversity and other ecosystem functioning.Effect on the vegetationUpward movement of the vegetation belt. It result change in the pattern of structure and distribution of many valuable plant species, Reduction in the area of severely sensitive ecosystem like high altitude pastures, snow cover peaks and important glaciers.Changes in the phenology of some plant species, which include change in time of flowering and seed formation.Changes in the habitat, which is favourab le for new alien weedy and invasive species.Increases fire risk in the sub-temperate and temperate dry deciduous and pine forests.Increases productivity of some grass species from the high altitude regions.Adverse impact on the timber production of forest.Effect on the agro-systemChanges the pattern and time of cropping.Shortening the maturity period of some winter crops, which are traditionally important constituent of mountain agriculture.Increase in the pathogen survival rate and crops are more susceptible to pest, insect and fungal diseases.Decline in the yield productivity of some traditional crops whereas increasing temperature may also be favour the productivity crops like wheat.Decline in the yield of some horticultural fruits which needs chilling effect for their fruit development as seen in case of Apple fruit production.Uncertain high precipitation leads to destruction of crop productivity during flowering, seed formation and maturation time.Effect on Physical systemAccel erate intensity of glacier melting.Reduces area under snow cover and changes the time of snowmelt and snowfall at high-elevated ecosystems.Adverse impact on the seasonal runoff, freshwater availability.Increases the incident of landslides in mountains, drought condition and sever flood condition at lowland regions.Soil properties and process like organic enumerate decomposition, leaching and soil-water relation were influenced by increase temperature.Socio-economic conditions of the humankind severely affectedReduction in the area of pasture adversely affect the local eclogue economy, as most of the local livestock of the transhumant and adjoining lowland peoples depends on the high altitude pastures in Garhwal in the summer season.Impact on the timber, medicinal plants and agriculture in the high altitude region in some extent gives negative results to the related industries.Economy through the hydropower generation is affected.Change in the social culture of the peoples living a t high altitude regions, i.e. the time of the migration of the transhumant in Garhwal in recent affected due to the adverse climatic conditions. Which also affect their source of economy like agriculture, wool based occupation etc.Changes were also seen in the health conditions of the people living in high altitude, peoples of these regions now more worried about the heat stresses, vector borne diseases, respiratory, eye disorder etc.Status of many endangered wildlife fauna in the Himalayan region affected, and changes in the behavioural and seasonal migration of the animal species can be possible.Table Distribution of some major plant species at different altitudinal belt of Garhwal Himalaya.Altitude (m asl)Plant species500- 1400Shrubs Zizyphus xylopyrus, Woodfordia fructicosa, Trees Rhododendron arboreum, Shorea robusta, Dalbergia sisso, Acacia catechu, Adina cardifolia, Terminalia, Cassia fistula, Mallotus philippensis, Bombax ceiba.Agele,1500-2400Herbs Clematis montana, Anemone rivularis, A. obturiloba, Ranunculus hirtellus, Thalictrum chelidonii,Barbarea vulgaris, Silene indica, Malvia verticillata, Geraanium nepalense, Fragaria indica, Potentilla fulgens Epilobium pulustre,Bupleurum falcatum, Aster peduncularis, A. thomsonii, , Gentiana aprica etc.Shrubs Prunus cornuta, Rosa macrophylla, Zizyphus xylopyrus, Woodfordia fructicosaTrees Rhododendron arboreum, Shorea robusta, Dalbergia sisso, Acacia catechu, Pinus roxburghii,P. wallichiana, Quercus leucotricophora, Q. semecarpifolia, Adina cardifolia,2500- 3400Herbs Anemone rivularis, A. obturiloba, Ranunculus hirtellus, Thalictrum chelidonii, T. minus, T. elegans, Aquilegiaa pubiflora, Caltha palustris Clematis montana, Clematis barbellata, Delphinium vestitum, Podophyllum hexandrum, Corydalis cornuta, Arabis nova, Viola canescens, Silene edgeworthii, S. Indica, Stellaria monosperma, Geranium collinum, G. himalayense, Trigonella emodi, Geum roylei, Potentilla fruticosa, P. fulgens, P. gelida, P. leuconota, P. polyphylla etc.Grasse Sedge Carex cruciata, Agrostis pilosula,Poa supina, P. alpina, Danthonia.Shrubs Cotoneaster macrophylla, Cotoneaster acuminatus, Lonicera, Salix, Rubus foliolosus, Spiraea bella, Berberis glaucocarpa, Myricaria bracteata, Skimmia laaureola, Astragallus candolleanus, Rosa macrophylla. Ribes himalense,Trees Betula utilis, Taxus baccata, Rhododendron campanulatum, Alnus nitida, A. nepalensis, Abies pindrow, Cedrus deodara, Pinus wallichiana, Acer ceasium, Junipers3500-4400Herbs Cypridium elegans*, C. himalaicum, Epipogium aphyllum, Dactylorrhiza hatagirea, Listera tenuis, Neottianthe secundiflora, Aconitum balfouri, A. falconeri, A. heterophyllum, A. violaceum, Ranunculus pulchellus, Thalictrum alpinum, Podophyllum hexandrum, Acer caesium*, Meconopsis aculeate, Corydalis sikkimensis, Megacarpaea polyandra, Astragallus himalayanus, Nardostachys graandiflora*, Picrorhiza kurrooa*, Pleurospermum angelicoides, Saussurea costus*, S. obvallata, Angelica glauca, Ribe s griffithii, Lonicera asperifolia, Waldhemia tomentosa, Primula glomerata, Arnebia benthamii, Geranium pratense, Impatiens thomsonii, I. racemosa, Dioscorea deltoidea*, Allium humile, A. stracheyi*, A. wallichi, Clintonia udensis, Thamnocalamus falconeri, Orobanche alba, Sedum ewersii, S. heterodontum,Pimpnella diversifolia, Morina longifoliaGrasse Sedge Elymus thomsonii, Agrostis munroana, Calamagrostis emodensis, Danthonia cachemyriana, Festuca polycolea, Poa pagophila, Stipa roylei, Carex infuscate, C. nivalis, Kobresia royleana, K. duthei etc.Shrubs Cotoneaster duthiana, Cotoneaster acuminatus Hippophae tibetana, Rosa sericea, Sorbus macrophylla, S. ursine, Rhododendron anthopogon,Trees Sorbus aucuparia, Cedrus deodara, Betulla utilis,4500- aboveHerbs Oxygraphis glacialis, Ranunculus pulchellus,Corydalis bowerii, Alyssum canescens,Draba altaica, Silene gonosperma, Potentilla sericea, Sedum bouverii, Saussurea obvallata, S. simpsoniana, Christolea himalayensisLiterature citedRa u, M. A. (1975). High altitude flowering plants of west Himalaya. BSI, Howrah, India, pp.214.Singh, D. K. and Hajra, P. K., in Changing Perspectives of Biodiversity Status in the Himalaya (eds Gujral, G. S. and Sharma, V.), British Council Division, British High Commission, Publ. Wildlife Youth Services, New Delhi, 1996, pp. 23-38.Dunne, J.A., Harte, J. and Taylor, K. (2003). Sub alpine Meadow Flowering Phenology Responses To Climate Change Integrating Experimental And Gradient Methods, Ecological Monographs 73 (1), pp. 69-86.IPCC (2001). Climate Change-2001 Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, contribution of Working Group II to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.Kriticos, D.J., Sutherst, R.W., Brown, J.K., Adkings, S.W. and Maywald, G.F. (2003) Climate Change and The Potential Distribution of an Invasive Alien Plant Acacia nilotica ssp.indica in Australia, Journal of Applied Ecology, 40 111-124.Nautiyal, B.P., Prakash, V and Nautiyal, M. C. (2000). Structure And Diversity Pattern Along An Altitudinal Gradient In An Alpine Meadow Of Madhyamaheshwer, Garhwal Himalaya, India. Indian Journal of Environmental Science 4(I). 39- 48.Nautiyal, M.C., Nautiyal, B.P. and Prakash, V. (2001). Phenology And Growth motley Distribution In An Alpine Pasture At Tungnath, Garhwal Himalaya. Mountain Research and Development, Vol. 21, No. 2, 177-183.Price, M.V. and Waser, N.M. (2000). Responses of sub alpine meadow vegetation to four year of experimental warming. Ecological Applicati

Waste Land Essay: A Single Protagonist -- T.S. Eliot Waste Land Essays

The Waste Land A Single Protagonist        The idea of a single and unifying protagonist in The Waste Land was briefly proposed by Stanley Sultan in Ulysses, The Waste Land, and Modernism form.  I would like to accompany this topic in greater depth.  Part I presents no obstacles to reading the poem in this light. On the contrary, the hypothesis of a single speaker and promoter adds shadow, depth, drama, and direction to everything in the movement. It disc overs a poem of far more seriousness, profundity, and complexity. Certainly the original functional title, He Do the Police in Different Voices, implies the presence of a single speaker in the poem who is gifted at taking off the voices of others--just as the foundling named Sloppy in Dickenss Our Mutual lifter is, according to the doubtless biased and doting Betty Higden, a beautiful reader of a newspaper. He do the police in different voices. This speaker has a flair for tones of crimina lity, sensationalism, and outrage--the whole gamut of abjection and judgment or so the title implies. He shows a relish for such tones, he is virtuosic at rendering them. The working title was thus itself a harsh judgment on the protagonist (whom it travesties). All speech is abjection? The very impulse to perform voice is rummy? A complicity in the fascination of crime--say, murder? To create and to murder are near akin? These severe intimations are of a piece with the contemptus mundi of the poem. The hypothesis of an all-centering, autobiographic protagonist-narrator is not only consistent with the working title it explains the confident surfacing, in the latter part of the poem, of an unmistakable religious pilgrim. Unless this p... ...ough up, a phlegm of speech. By imbuing his protagonist with his own auditory and vocal genius of participation in the abjectness of his times and in approaches to the Absolute (for the silence must be heard, and speech must process it), Eliot made his poem a barometer sensitive both to the foggy immediate air and to the atmospheric pressure high and far off, the thunder of spring over distant mountains (part 5). A group or medley of voices cannot attend to a charged, remote silence for that a single protagonist was necessary, one who could both do the group and find in himself the anguish and strength to leave it, repressing the fatal impulse (as Moody puts it) towards a renewal of human love and seeking, instead, the neck Omnipotent. He Do the Police in Different Voices The Waste Land and Its Protagonist. Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1986.  

Health and Wellness int the Workplace :: essays research papers

Health and Wellness in the WorkplaceIf the health of employees can help or hinder a company, then why do companies still receive sick days? With the on the go lifestyles, how can we not question the health of employees and their families. Today we have high hear jobs, f meeker hour traffic, and demanding schedules. Being healthy and fit is the way to conquer tomorrow. We, as people in the workforce, ar depended on to follow through with work commitments. A healthy employee is able to do more and feel well enough to enjoy it. We strive to do our best but how can we when we have low morale at the office. Healthy employees directly impact the bottom-line of all companies, from the sole proprietorship to the large corporation (1996). Keeping health-care costs low, boosting morale, increasing productivity, and reducing the wanting(p) rate is a payoff that every good business owner should recognize. When a small business is trying to become larger, having employees who are healthy and stress free is important. Losing a member of an already small number due to being ill is not the way to succeed. Working in an environment that is cheerful and productive is the perfect place to work, regardless of what the job is.With the health care costs reaching high number there is no wonder we have a large number of absenteeism. So many wait to the last possible painstaking work day to decide to see a ready about their aliment, and all of that could be prevented. Preventing oneself to have to take time off from work is one way to keep costs low. There are so many areas that need to be addressed when it comes to what is going to slow us down as a company. According to estimates by Dr. Jaime Claudio(1991), a corporate wellness consultant for Health Plus, a provider of health-care insurance, a comprehensive eating awareness and weight- management program designed to improve long-term habits could generate an 80% reduction in the incidence of potential problems caused by obesit y in the workplace. These problems include hypertension, diabetes, coronary heart disease, and diminished work efficiency. Obesity is not the precisely eating disorder that is a problem, there is bulimia and anorexia. Smoking, drinking, substance abuse, and stress are problems that are brought into the workplace and stop productivity. We have to be aware of issues that are there but are not usually thought of as an illness.